Département d'Anglais

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Linguistic and Intentional Hybridity, or the African Aesthetics of Proverbial Quoting in Selected Novels by Ayi Kwei Armah
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2008) GuendouziI, Amar
Two creative thrusts straddle the poetic imagination of the modern African writer, with regard to the literary heritage of the West. Ashcroft et al. (2004: 37) call them appropriation and abrogation. Abrogation, on the one hand, is a disjunctive process which involves the rejection of the Western language and its culture, because it perceives them as remnants of the colonial past. Appropriation, on the other hand, is not as clear cut. It looks for accommodation rather than rejection. It involves two languages, two cultures in a negotiation process that attempts to create local meaning, a particular worldview, with foreign words. Postcolonial literature, therefore, grows out of a tension, an agon, in the poetic imagination of the writer, torn as he is by these two creative impulses, these two ideological postures. Translated into the discursive categories of hybridity, appropriation and amalgamation correspond to Bakhtin’s typology of hybrid discourses (1992): the organic, "unintentional, unconscious" hybrid, and the deliberate “intentional” hybrid. The former is the discourse in which the mixture of languages is fused into a new system, which elicits the historical evolution of all languages, whereas the latter is the "internally dialogic" form, in which languages and ideologies are consciously set against each other. Bakhtin sees the first kind of hybrid structure as characteristic of any living, evolving language, while he assimilates the second to the immanently dialogised nature of the language in the novel. In other words, organic hybrid discourses involve mixing and fusion. They are part and parcel of a natural process in language and cultural contact. Bakhtin explains that they are always mute and opaque. Nevertheless, they remain historically “productive [… with] potential for new world views, with new ‘internal forms’ for perceiving the world” (ibid. 360). Contrary to this kind, the intentional hybrid comes as a result of an artistic intention to dialogize hybridity; an artistic intention that produces disjunction rather than fusion. The aim of this disjunctive type is separation, because it is essentially a contestatory site of more than one discourse, with one of them trying to unsettle, disarticulate the other discourses representing authority. For Bakhtin, therefore, hybridization, best concretized in the novel, is closely linked to subversion of authority. Applied to the modern development in creative writings in Africa, organic hybrid discourse finds its most conspicuous expression in the productions of the popular writers. According to Stephanie Newell (2000), organic hybridity, even if she does not use the Bakhtinian terms, was born among African popular writers as a result of a generational conflict between the elderly and the young. At the level of linguistic performance, including literature, the young popular writers affirmed their social status vis-à-vis the elderly, who manipulated the traditional proverbs, by drawing authority from “a shared pool of [foreign] literary languages, crossing different genres and language registers and, in the process, creating narrative whirlpools that are self-consciously textual” (18). In the traditional society, proverbs were, to paraphrase one of Chinua Achebe’s famous proverbs, the palm wine with which words are eaten. But in the acculturated context of the colonized society, the quotation replaced the proverb in its function of putting across and articulating arguments related to social issues such as money, corruption, gender relations etc. Unlike market popular writers, Africa’s international novelists seem to have resorted to intentional hybrid forms in their novels. Moved by deep nationalist convictions, these fiction writers assimilated their creative task to the nationalist struggle for political liberation and cultural revival. As a consequence, they meant their fictions as contestatory sites, in which they grappled with all the symbols of Western hegemony. Polemics, parody and anxiety of influence are all hallmarks of the discourse of these literary productions. Our aim in this study is to show that organic and hybrid discourses within the African novel may also exist side by side. In our view, the Ghanaian writer Ayi Kwei Armah is a novelist whose poetic imagination accords equal importance to the intentional and organic hybrid discourses. It is true that in his extra-literary writings he has encouraged critics to see the hybridization process of his novels as essentially contestatory vis-à-vis Western writers. For instance, in his response to Charles Larson (1971), who has drawn many parallels between his two first novels and many novels belonging to European writers, mainly the fictions of James Joyce, he took him to task by calling his criticism “larsony” (1976). However, Armah’s corpus of novels to date clearly shows that he is also the heir of the popular novelists, whose imagination was lit up by the poetic fire of their Western counterparts. Our interest in Armah’s novels is also sustained by the recent orientation in cultural studies towards the issue of hybridity. This aspect of his work has been overlooked by the critics of his early novels, written in the 1960’s and 1970’s, long before the translation of Mikhail Bakhtin’s works on the discourse of the novel and the publication of Homi Bhabha’s ground-breaking study The Location of Culture (1994). Subjected to literary and ideological categories which borrowed mostly from the existential ideology of Jean Paul Sartre, these novels were rejected on the basis that they lacked authenticity and commitment. In other words, The Beautyful Ones Are not Yet Born, Fragments and Why Are We So Blest? were misread because they were not timely; timely in the sense that they demanded critical categories that were not yet fully fledged at their time of publication. Today, with the recent publications on hybridity, Armah’s novels can be said to have become, in Nietzsche’s term, timely.
A Lexico-Semiotic Approach to Cyber-English or How Technology Affects Language and Culture
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2008) Mohamed Sadek, Fodil
La langue et la technologie déjà caractérisées par une grande faculté d’adaptation sont soumises à une évolution complexe et permanente tout en se nourrissant l’une l’autre. La langue en fournissant à la technologie les signes linguistiques nécessaires à la désignation des concepts, objets et outils inlassablement inventés par l’homme ; la technologie, en offrant à la langue des possibilités toujours accrues pour la production, l’illustration, le stockage et la dissémination des produits langagiers. Notre recherche traite de la variété de la langue anglaise connue sous le nom de cyber-English, et notre propos est de tenter de montrer certains de ses effets sur la langue et la culture anglo-saxonnes. Pour cela, nous mettons l’accent sur les efforts d’adaptation déployés par la langue anglaise surtout dans sa dimension lexicographique en nous basant sur un corpus représentant environ un dixième d’un dictionnaire inventé par la communauté virtuelle des hackers, et connue sous le nom de « The Jargon Dictionary », version 4.2.0., du mois de Janvier 2000. Nous nous attardons sur l’apparition du phénomène linguistique que nous avons nommé componemes, car contrairement aux mots ordinaires composés de phonèmes, ceux-ci sont construits à partir d’éléments que nous avons appelé MICUs ou (Minimal Informational Cooperative Units). Ensuite, nous appliquons la théorie sémiotique triadique de C.S. Peirce pour tenter de comprendre et d’expliquer la présence de ces nouvelles structures composant certaines entrées du dictionnaire précité.
English Language Teaching in Algeria: An Analysis of the Contents and Implementation of the New Syllabi in the Middle and Secondary Education
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2009) Ameziane, Hamid
Our thesis has surveyed some significant issues of the Algerian educational policy. There are some observations that can be made about the predominent features of the syllabi and terxtbooks launched to support the educational reform. We started our investigation by scrutinizing the construction of learners’ identity through the construction of the intercultural communicative competency, and the ethical competency considered as a major goal of education (Dewey). The results confirmed our hypothesis which claimed that the orientation of the syllabi and textbooks is in line mainly with the didactic perspective. Our basic premise has been proved, therefore, to be right inasmuch as the didactic and the behavioural aspects predominate in the textbooks, this, to the detriment of the critical construction of personal and social competencies. The educational choice made by the designers defeats the constructivist claims made by the syllabi designers on the one hand, and the constructivist philosophy which asserts that a learner should contribute to the construction of his own personal and social competencies by adopting reflective and affective attitudes towards his learning
Hegilian themes in black americanthought [texte imprimé] : from Frederick Douglass to malcolm x
(Universite Mouloud Mammeri, 2009-09) Zerar, Sabrina
This thesis discusses the Hegelian themes in the works of six representative figures in Black American political thought: Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, William B. DuBois, Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. It seeks to investigate the articulation of these themes with reference to the major works by George W. Frederick Hegel, namely the Phenomenology of Spirit, The Philosophy of Right and The Philosophy of History. The working hypothesis at the basis of the research is that the quest for social recognition and freedom at the heart of a minority thought like that of the Black American thinkers can be fully grasped within a Hegelian theoretical framework. Taking its bearings from new historicism, cultural materialism and post-colonial theory, this research tries to show that the six Black thinkers under study have, each in his own manner, seized on the methodological tools and themes that Hegel supplied in his works to articulate their concerns for social recognition and freedom. This study attempts to illustrate that each and every writer in the selected corpus has given emphasis to particular Hegelian themes depending on the historical and socio-cultural conditions in which he produced his work. For example, writing in the Abolitionist period of the first half of the nineteenth century, Douglass foregrounded the dialectic of the slave and master. The spirit of resistance remains the dominant feature of his autobiography. The case of Washington was different. Coming onto the post-Reconstruction stage of American history known as the Gilded Age, an age that witnessed the compromise over the ideals of racial freedom, Washington played down the spirit of overt resistance and played up that of accommodation. Washington took his cue from Douglass as regards the importance of industrial education and skilled labour for racial liberation and proceeded to elaborate a philosophy of rights similar to that of Hegel in its seeming abandonment of militancy for political rights. The age of the progressives at the beginning of the twentieth century was the age during which DuBois’s political thought as regards the racial issue reached its full development. Just like the white progressives, DuBois was steeped in the German/Hegelian social thought of the period. Like them he sought to remedy the ills in the social fabric of the Ethical State by resorting to liberal education and cultural refinement. One of the arguments is that DuBois supplemented Hegel’s the Philosophy of World History by including the Negro as one of its prime movers towards the Absolute. In the process of setting the Negro on the stage of World History alongside the likes of Shakespeare, DuBois made no elbow room for the Hegelian slave about whom his contemporary fellow Black man Washington had made such a big case. Marcus Garvey took over the idea of racial separation from Booker T. Washington in the 1920s to elaborate the idea of a nostos or a return of the Black race to Africa. In this emphasis on the idea of a nation as a sine qua non condition for racial self-definition and the achievement of freedom, Garvey came close to Hegel’s ethical state as an organic unity. Racial nationalism is related to the nativist thought of the “roaring twenties”. With Garvey’s deportation in 1925, the racial issue temporarily lulled up because of the Great Depression before surging up again with the reversal of the “separate but equal” doctrine by the Supreme Court decision of 1954. The international context marked by the start of the Cold War and the “blowing winds” of decolonisation as well as the assumption of world leadership by the United States allowed the emergence of Martin Luther King Jr who renewed the call for racial justice. Taking his cue from Hegel’s aesthetics and dialectic method, King synthesized many philosophical ideas with which he came across during his educational career into a coherent social philosophy known as non-violent resistance. This militant philosophy, which led to the enactment of the Civil Rights Acts in the mid-1960s, showed its limits when King attempted to implement it in the North after riots in the black ghettoes. With the idea of the black ghettoes as “internal colonies”, Malcolm’s revolutionary call for a cultural nationalist politics laid the ground for the Black Power movement in the mid-1960s. Even King who idealised the right of the individual subscribed to such communitarian politics whose philosophical inspiration goes back to Hegel’s conception of the ethical state.
Feminism in Britain: From William Shakespeare to Mary Wollstonecraft
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2012) Gariti, Mohamed
This thesis entitled Feminism in Britain: From William Shakespeare to Mary Wollstonecraft falls within the category of research on gender studies or feminist scholarship. It sheds light on the origin and evolution of Liberal feminism and its contradictions during the period stretching from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment. It focuses on the shift of paradigms of thoughts and discourse about the place of gender in the public sphere. The humanist episteme promoted the spread of the feminist discourse because of the very contradictions inherent to the liberal ideology. In an attempt to prove that British feminism evolved from a sympathetic attitude reflected in the writings of the Renaissance to a defensive type during the Glorious Revolution to reach towards the end of the eighteenth century an offensive phase with Mary Wollstonecraft who broke into the public sphere and entered a fierce debate with many of her contemporary philosophers and writers, I selected six authors, three male, William Shakespeare, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, and three female, Mary Astell, Mary Wollstonecraft and Susanna Haswell Rowson as representative authors. The thesis is divided into three main parts, with three chapters each. Part One “Shakespeare’s England and Women” discusses how the gender issue emerged in Shakespeare’s time. Chapter One “Women in Shakespeare’s England: Humanism and Reformation Influences” considers the status of women in Shakespeare’s England. Chapter Two “Shakespeare, Patriarchal Bard or Feminist Sympathiser?” views Shakespeare as a patriarchal Renaissance man who sympathises with women. Chapter Three “Shakespeare, Empire and the Tuning of Feminist Sympathies According to the Ethnicities of Empire” deals with the impact empire had on the emergence of feminist sympathies in Shakespeare’s time. Part Two “Hobbes, Locke, and Mary Astell: Dialogue and Polemics” considers the dialogue and polemics between Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Mary Astell with regard to the gender issue. Chapter Four “An Overview of the Revolutionary Ideas of the Enlightenment” is devoted to the historical and intellectual background behind the birth of the stated dialogue and polemics. Chapter Five “Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan and John Locke’s Second Treatise on Government: Theoretical Foundations of the ‘Myth of the State’” analyses the manner Hobbes and Locke for the first time in modern European intellectual history theorised differently about the separation of the public from the private realm. Chapter Six “Mary Astell’s Some Reflections upon Marriage: a Feminist Reading of Locke’s Hypothesis” considers Astell as the first liberal feminist to stand against the bourgeois man’s confinement of women in that bourgeois conjugal family’s internal space without access to the economic, the political, or cultural spheres of the private realm. Part Three “Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism and Gender in Eighteenth Century England” argues for the evolutions within British feminism in the eighteenth century. Chapter Seven “Gender, Nationalism, and the French Revolution: Mary Wollstonecraft vs. Male and Female Writers” is devoted to an analysis of anthologized essays from The Tatler and The Spectator to show how these early eighteenth-century periodicals instituted the cultural and social norms of Enlightenment Britain and beyond. Chapter Eight “Mary Wollstonecraft: Dialogue on the Political Rights of Women” analyses the works of Wollstonecraft to illustrate how the expanding world of letters constitutive of the bourgeois public sphere of civil society was intruded into by her works due to the political radicalism unleashed by the French and American revolutions. Chapter Nine “Mary Wollstonecraft’s and Susanna Rowson’s Liberal Feminism and Orientalism” considers the contradictions of the liberal feminism of Wollstonecraft and Rowson, who re-tooled orientalism in defence of women’s rights.
Rudyard Kipling, Edward Morgan Forster, William Somerset Maugham and Joseph Conrad: The British Imperial Tradition and the Individual Talent
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2012-10) Sibar, Mouloud
This thesis studied the dialectic of imperial tradition and individual talent in the non-fictional and fictional works of Rudyard Kipling, Edward Morgan Forster, William Somerset Maugham and Joseph Conrad. Taking its bearings from the postcolonial theory and critical categories elaborated by Edward Said, it argued the point that variation on the theme of commitment to Empire is close to “degree zero” in the four writers’ works in spite of their significantly different ideologies. “Authorial ideology” is superseded by the “general ideology” of Empire as each and every author invests his “talent” in enhancing that imperial tradition that Said calls Orientalism. In their texts, it is the “textual attitude” that prevails in their perception of the Other in the opposition of the Oriental man’s primitiveness and the Western man’s progress. I also argued that if the authors wrote in support of Empire, it was because it was the imperial ideology that enabled them to circulate their “talents”. One of my assumptions in developing the argument is that literature is just like money or currency. Writing at a time of high imperialism, the four authors could not have coined their artistic talents and put them into circulation without confirming to the general culture of empire that percolated to their respective audiences. It is the numismatic mark of empire on their talent that enabled them to be listened to and read by the public and this numismatic mark as I tried to demonstrate throughout the dissertation is characterized by monologism. The intertextuality between the four authors at the level of content is of the domain of pastiche as there is no significant “clash of referent” of the Empire. The Other voice in the writers’ intertexts remains the same in spite of individual attempts to differentiate their style. The four of them are preoccupied with the maintenance of empire through the proposition of solutions and strategies to that shared goal. In short, I attempted to illustrate the ideology of difference in the four writers’ works in the opposition they establish between narrative and vision in the representation of the Other (the Orientals) versus the Same (the Westerners) and the association of the Oriental space with the demonic, the abnormal, the diseased and the marginal, and the Western space with the norm and the centre. This binary aesthetics is underpinned by the assumption that the Orient and the Oriental man are there to be studied, to be controlled and restored to the Western rational norms. The writers’ allegiance to art and the development of individual talent comes second to the allegiance to the country and its imperial interests. Thus, whether their personal style is classified as realist or modernist, it does not question the existence of empire, and as such their works read as allegories of empire. In this sense, the dialectic of imperial tradition and individual talent turns short.
Culture Issues, Ideology and Otherness in EFL Textbooks: A Social Semiotic Multimodal Approach
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2012-11-25) Souryana, Yassine
This thesis is concerned with the evaluation of the development of cultural contextualisation in three Algerian EFL textbooks; Think it Over (1989), Comet (2001) and New Prospects (2007) and their conception(s) of the relation of the Self to the Other. Looking at these textbooks as social discourses constructed multimodally, it focuses on key issues such as Culture, Ideology and Otherness which are very important for the construction of learners’ Third Space where meaningful learning leads to the development of intercultural competence. It therefore investigates which of the national/local, target/foreign, international/global, Other English speaking countries or Western/European cultures are represented in the textbooks both at the linguistic level (reading text) and at the visual level (images) in an attempt to capture the ideologies which underlie them. By unveiling these ideologies it scrutinises the ways in which the contact of cultures is portrayed and which discourse it conveys. The investigation is based on Mixed Methods Research. It combines the Social Semiotic Multimodal Approach, developed according to the principles of Social Semiotics and Multimodality theory and meant as an innovative alternative to the existing evaluation checklist and models which overlook the visual components of the teaching materials, with a questionnaire addressed to a group of Secondary School teachers who have been/are still using the three textbooks. The Social Semiotic Multimodal Approach provides a comprehensive evaluation which caters for the cultural contents in the three textbooks both as of the level of the reading texts and at the level of visual images. The results obtained reveal how the cultural contextualisation in the three textbooks favours main stream British and American cultures linguistically and visually making them stand out as the most legitimate contexts for teaching English as a foreign language in Algeria. The international/global culture also is given a considerable place in the three textbooks but is most often associated with Western/European cultures than with the learners’ national/local culture or Other English speaking countries cultures. It is only with the recent textbook New Prospects that the national/local culture started to be given more prominence. Though locally designed, Algerian EFL textbooks seem to reproduce Native-Speakerism and Centre vs. Periphery discourses which establish a hierarchy among different cultures. As a result they promote transmission ideologies where culture is reduced to its surface aspects and packaged as a set of facts and meanings but not as dialogue. They accordingly distort the relation of the Self and the Other by not giving opportunities for Thirdness to emerge. This tendency, however, is challenged by the recent textbook New Prospects which, though still focuses on main stream British and American cultures, affords a more prominent place for the local culture and provides more opportunities for intercultural learning.
Cross-Cultural and Ideological Representations of The “Other” in Selected Works By Herman Melville and Joseph Conrad
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2012-12) Sidi-Said, Fadhila
This thesis discusses the representation of the “Other” in selected works of Herman Melville and Joseph Conrad. The purpose of this work is to demonstrate by an accurate scrutiny of the text based on Mikhael Bakhtin’s view of the novel as a ‘polyphonical genre’ and postcolonial concept of “Otherness” that the representation of the Other is not strictly ‘monological’, but it is the result of a mix of different discourses which clash with each other and are unable to create a unitary, coherent picture. The working hypothesis at the basis of the research is that the quest for social recognition of the two authors and the ‘authorial ideology’ in terms of the dialectic of Self during their times have provoked a dialogue over the notion of the “Other” in their literary texts. For Bakhtin, “Even meanings born in dialogues of the remotest past will never be finally grasped once and for all, for they will always be renewed in later dialogue” (Bakhtin, 2002:39). We argue that Melville’s and Conrad’s literary texts are not only social practices and political productions but inspire endless dialogues that can be renewed because of the profound and ambivalent meanings of their texts. Different as they are stylistically, both texts offer a valuable lens that allows us to examine the dynamics of race, and gender; and to critique authorial responses to race, gender, social and political issues. To reach this aim, the work is divided into two parts. Each part is composed of three chapters. The first part underscores the ideology of Otherness as it was worked out in the nineteenth century and contrasts it with modern theories, with stress on the differences in the theorizing about the “Other” in the two periods. It also attempts to highlight the context and the facets of life that might have shaped Melville’s and Conrad’s perception of the “Other”. One of the arguments is that both writers are restless subjects who are always on the move both in terms of concrete experience as voyagers across the seas and in terms of imagination in quest of the truth about self-other dialectic. Their works are dramatized perceptions of the self as an “Other” under various shapes.
Modern African Literature Revisited: A Study of Literary Affinities in Selected Early Novels by Achebe, Feraoun, Kateb, Ngugi, Armah and Mimouni
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2014-01) Naar/ Gada, Nadia
This thesis revisits a representative example of early Modern African Literature with reference to six outstanding authors, notably Mouloud Feraoun, Chinua Achebe, Kateb Yacine, Ngugi Wa Thiong’O, Ayi Kwei Armah, and Rachid Mimouni. These authors constitute a particular constellation. Their productions have been marked by experiment at the level of both form and theme. One of the major arguments is that they constitute a site for the interplay of orality and writing, one of the consequences of which is the production of the glocal discourse. Taking our theoretical bearings from a comparative poetics, giving as much emphasis to the oral tradition in which the writers were brought up as to the Western culture in which they were educated, we have sought to demonstrate that the six writers’ attitude to orality spans the whole gamut from preservation marked reverence through refinement to revision. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Feraoun’s La terre et le sang, for instance, provide a pertinent example of hybrid intellectuals who have been exposed to Western cultures, but managed to maintain their basic African identity. Their novels’ hybrid discursivity has been articulated through the blending of the realist mode of writing, ethnographical and historical discourses, which are expressed in a formulaic oral style.The two writers’ attitude to their culture is that of preservation; they celebrate it while, at the same time, acting as cultural critics all the while. As regards toNgugi Thiong’O’s A Grain of Wheat and Kateb Yacine’s Nedjma, the attitude shifts from preservation to cultural refinement within the theme of revolution where African Epic narrative forms and modernist mode of writing blend. Kateb and Ngugi’s novels provide an interesting paradigm of intersection between experimental textual strategies with which both authors grappled with the complexities of the written expression. Their novels are marked by a quest for style where in some elements from African oral tradition are more subtly deployed. A similar confluence of discourses and genres is alsodisplayed in Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born and Rachid Mimoun’s Le fleuve détourné. These two writers deploy textual “outbreaks” that erupt in vehement but subtle denunciations to put forward a vision of societies that emerged from cruel times of colonialism to be engulfed in neocolonialism. Both of them use verbal indirection and signifying oratory as deviation tactics to revise their cultures. The devices derive from the African verbal expression of implicit meaning akin to the African trickster tradition and are uttered in the grotesque mode of writing where satire and character type become the appropriate mode for social criticism. Armah and Mimouni express their dissident thoughts in a distinctive artistic way through their dialogic narratives.
Domestic and Foreign Issues in American Barbary Captivity Narratives
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2016) Rezzik, Mohand Akli
This research seeks to explore the domestic and foreign issues reflected in Barbary captivity narratives, with a particular focus on American captivity accounts. Methodologically, it draws heavily on a multidisciplinary approach, with an emphasis on historicist and postcolonial theories. Mary Louise Pratt and Edward W. Said are some of the scholars from whom it has borrowed its critical paradigms. Some of these paradigms like “Orientalism” are redefined to make them fit into this research. The latter concept, for example, is redefined primarily as a study of ideological captivity. It follows that this research does not look at “captivity” simply as a harrowing physical experience but also as an ideological phenomenon. In addition to corporeal captivity, one can also be captured by texts. Captivity is also looked at as an epistemological tool reflecting and thinking about issues prevalent in the captive’s society. Consequently, the corpus of this research includes two anthologies of Barbary captivity accounts and a nineteenth century political essay on the Regency of Algiers. The former are respectively edited by Daniel J.Vitkus (Piracy, Slavery, and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England, 2001) and Paul Baepler (White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Captivity Narratives, 1999), and the latter is Sketches of Algiers by William Shaler (1826). The British Barbary captivities included in Vikus’s anthology are analyzed in an introductory chapter, the purpose of which is to underline the continuity in function of Barbary captivities recounted by pre-modern English/British captives and the Barbary captivities narrated by American captives in the colonial and postindependence periods. This research shows that British and American captivities can be placed in a spectrum reflecting the same pattern of thematic and formal development. In accordance with the historical contexts of their publication and the balance of power relations from which these captivities are narrated, one finds on one side of this spectrum captivities dealing with postcolonial themes and on the other side captivities concerned mostly with imperial concerns. In line with the re-definition of the topos of captivity, this research devotes a whole chapter to the study of orientalism-cum-imperialism in Shaler’s Sketches of Algiers as an ideological captivity.
The Quest for utopia semuel butler to Bertrand Russell
(2016) Benmechiche, Hacène
This thesis studied the evolution and impact of utopian thought in the English-speaking world from the late nineteenth century up to the present times selecting for consideration texts produced in the late nineteenth century, which coincided with the crisis of capitalism, the first half of the twentieth century, characterised by the crisis of modernity and a general mood of pessimism with regard to the capacity of science or socialism to lead to ―eutopia‖‖, and texts envisioning the reconstruction of a human society, threatened by division, conflicts and ultimately possible extinction, as a global utopia. This ultimate utopia, which would represent the culmination of the Enlightenment project and the temporary materialization of the Liberal Idea, would, unlike the traditional static utopias, remain open to criticism and improvement. The study, which takes its theoretical bearings from the sociology of knowledge and sociolinguistics, considers language use as a form of social action, thinking as tightly conditioned by being; action whereby social subjects / agents mediate their world. Drawing upon the critical concepts and categories elaborated by Karl Mannheim, Paul Ricoeur, Mikhail Bakhtin, Michel Foucault, and Norman Fairclough, I attempt to argue the claim that, as texts, the utopias I studied in their ongoing dialectical intercourse with other texts of the utopian tradition as well as their respective contexts performed critical function which purported to improve the texts through regular revisiting, and society through ongoing criticism, and reconstruction. Hence utopia, as a man-centered Pelagian project, has sought the progressive perfection of man and human society in the present world. In the last resort, utopianism, whether in its textual or practical version, appeared more as a critical companion, a faithful bedfellow to ideology, whose flaws it unveils and which it has helped to improve and vie. Hence, in their quest for utopia, the Authors considered in the present thesis: Samuel Butler, Edward Bellamy, William Morris, Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, H.G.Wells, and Bertrand Russell drew upon the utopian tradition, which they reworked creatively, to achieve a balance between individual freedom and happiness on the one hand, with social order and stability, on the other hand. Observed from the perspective of a member of ―the backward races‖, which are integrated as resources and extensions in the Anglo-Saxon Enlightened utopian project, one cannot fail to suspect the difficulty these authors face, as supposed ‗advocates of the interests of the whole‘, to overcome Mannheim‗s paradox and totally emancipate themselves from the outlook of a society in which they are culturally immersed. This ethnocentric attitude can be interpreted as a form of will to power‖ which has recently led to the emergence of a global hegemon. None the less, given the authors‘ audacious ideas on such issues as power, governance, education, demography, ethics and environment, one may say on their behalf that they have been made the reluctant accomplices of a power thirsty ideology which they will not fail to unveil and resist as such.
homas Paine and Frantz Fanon : their vision of man and their theort of revolution
(Universite Mouloud Mammeri, 2017) Gada, Said
The aim of this studyis to compare and contrast the works of two influential thinkers, Thomas Paine and Frantz Fanon from a dialogic and eclectic perspective. Though separated by time and space, the comparison of their works shows that their thoughts, feelings, and action within the structures of power of their social worlds and their times converge in many aspects. The reached findings can be summarized in what follows: first, the examination of the political, philosophical, social, and cultural significance of their worksdemonstrates how each of them performed a good deal about ethics and the moral life by concerning themselves with the social consequences of morality and the moral quality of social life. Second, the analysis of Paine’s and Fanon’s dedication to revolutionary action illustrates the way they serve the cause of man. As an ardent supporter of the American and French Revolutions, Paine re-enacts the principles of the Enlightenment to international politics; he contributed to the establishment of constitutional republics, which safeguard individual rights. Like Paine, Fanon dedicated his short life to the Algerian Revolution and insists on individual rights universally by pointing out the miseries and injustices within twentieth Bourgeois liberalism and colonialism. Therefore, he performs some of the humanist values articulated by Paine in the 18thcentury using a critical discourse, which abrogates the way Europe adulterated the essential elements of the Enlightenment. The first part of the thesis deals with the theories and key concepts which are applied to study the texts. The context of British and French colonization and revolution in America and Algeria is set as background with an interest in an analysis of Britain’s and France’s imperial powers over their colonies and their competition over territorial expansion. The findings of the second partreveal Paine’s and Fanon’s rhetoric strategies which “deconstruct” political and religious “habitus” about the struggle of the American and Algerian peoples while the last part illustrates the way Paine and Fanon perform a social drama staging the suffering of victims of colonial oppression by studying the two authors’ communicative action and their participation to the public sphere.
The Tragic in Selected Works by Eugene O’Neill and William Faulkner: Its Major Forms and Meanings
(Université Mouloud Mammeri, 2017-01-07) Khelifa, Arezki
This research seeks to explore the forms and meanings that the Tragic/Heroic assumes in selected works by Eugene O’Neill and William Faulkner. Methodologically it relies on a cultural materialist and dialogic paradigms borrowed from Raymond Williams’s major works. One major of its findings is that O’Neill’s and Faulkner’s works do not simply hold a dialogue with previous and contemporary literatures and drama of their time, but they also reflect a debate with classical and modern critical theories of tragedy. The second finding is that tragedy is not dead as claimed by George Steiner but that its spirit remains alive even in the modern world and that it is shaped differently. The third finding is that the Tragic/Heroic is not developed only in the major classical literature but also in minor popular literatures of our time such as in Faulkner’s Sanctuary. Its fourth finding relates to the deterriterrolisation of the Tragic/Heroic from a modern myth to a Greek one. In fact, this Doctorate dissertation has charted an historical evolution of the Tragic/Heroic by emphasizing thematic continuity over strict chronological order; it has linked the texts discussed with ten correlating theoretical perspectives, and it deduced its meanings and forms from the personal stances and words of the forty nine Faulknerian and O’Neillian heroes and heroines it has analyzed. Because of this ongoing interrogation whose legacy about the Tragic/Heroic is recognized, this research contended to provide an answer to the following question: How has the Tragic/Heroic evolved aesthetically and ethically in relation to some major issues like Gender, Race, Class, Identity, Religion and Region since ancient Greek tragedians until the mid-twentieth century? It demonstrated the transcendent literary significance of the Tragic/Heroic throughout three different literary ages that it considers as periods at which there has been a constellation of influences and circumstances that opened new opportunity to question, reinvigorate, improve and give tangible form to new ethical and aesthetic meanings about the Tragic/Heroic. It considered that tragedy cannot be outdated or rendered obsolete. Seven novels by Faulkner and thirteen plays by O’Neill were analyzed because of the many theoretical perspectives this research has appealed to, and because of the many influences both authors underwent. Methodologically and in accord with the afore-mentioned announcements, this Doctorate dissertation argued that new aesthetic and ethical meanings about the Tragic/Heroic have been conceived and crystallized out of three most essential historical, social and cultural backgrounds. The first great age in this literary investigation is located from the rise of the Greek tragic until Nietzsche, and it has been entitled: The Rise of the Classical Tragic from Ethics to Aesthetics. The second great literary age is labeled as: The Tragic/Heroic between the Cultural Hegemonic Wholeness and the New Alternatives of the Romantic Age. The third designated great epoch of the Tragic/Heroic is located in between World War One and the 1970’s and it is entitled: The Tragic/Heroic Encounter of the Modern and Post-modern ‘Others’. On the whole, it has been shown that Faulkner and O’Neill experienced an inevitable influence of all what is Greek [Aristotle], and that they were also affected by the many aesthetic and philosophical thoughts about the Tragic/Heroic as developed by Friedrich Nietzsche, G.W.F Hegel, August Strindberg, Henri Bergson, Berthold Brecht, Arthur Miller and Carl Gustav Jung. It has also shown that this ongoing transformation of the Tragic/Heroic can also be mediated throughout the application of postmodern theoretical notions as developed by Raymond Williams, and Gilles Deleuze. In sum, this Doctorate thesis sought to demonstrate the connectedness and the appropriateness of the Tragic/Heroic, under its various forms, to the modern literary works of O’Neill and Faulkner. Multiple examples of heroes [ranging from the classical and neo-classical to the narcissistic romantic, and to the solitary modern and modern-postmodern] have been analyzed in relation to their magnificent but impossible pursuit of identity uniqueness and comfort.
F.Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925) : Variations on Forms and Themes
(Universite Mouloud Mammeri, 2018) LACEB, Rafik
This research seeks to explore the variations that Francis Scott Fitzgerald plays on literary forms and themes in his modernist novel The Great Gatsby. Taking my theoretical bearings from archetypal criticism, the gift theory of literature, and dialogism inspired respectively by Northrop Frye, George Bataille, and Bakhtin, I have reached the following findings. First, The Great Gatsby is unique in the sense that it blends neoclassicism with romanticism, giving birth to what is a romantic modernist novel. Second, the novel appeals to more than one mode of writing resulting in a multimodal narrative with the predominance of irony, which in the words of Frye is characteristic of the modern age. Third, The Great Gatsby resorts to multi-stylism, combining, for example, the ironic and the epigrammatic styles. The preference of metaphor over metonymy has made the author eschew the technique of the narrative of saturation for the technique of selectivity. To this, one can add the resort to the mythic method, which allows the author to give his text a writerly instead of a readerly dimension. The fifth finding resides in the anxiety of authorship. Contrary to other authors, Fitgerald is all too ready to give credit to those authors from whom he borrows his techniques and themes. Therefore, instead of the usual anxiety of influence, his novel is marked by an anxiety of authorship wherein the author is desperately looking for a way of affirming his authorship in an age marked by the emergence of cheapened literature, and a culture of consumption. Thematically, the author puts great emphasis on love as a panacea for healing the social tensions of his community. The use of Plato’s Symposium as a model for love constitutes the sixth finding. This sixth finding pertains to the ethics of the modern novel. The seventh finding has to do with the theory of masks and counterfeiting. In this regard, it is argued that the novel puts a parallel between the production of literature and the minting of paper money. This analogically led to the way the social bonds, including those related to financial speculation, are distended with people wearing masks to hide their identities. Finally, in the general conclusion, the variations on forms and themes are categorized into three types. The first type is parody. The romance, before its tragic failure, is characterized as a parody romance of the type best represented by Don Quixote. As for the other forms regarding style and theme, the variation takes the shape of stylization wherein the author follows up in the lead of previous authors without falling in the trap of imitation. The hidden polemics is perfectly exemplified in the polemical tone that Fitzgerald adopts towards the culture of consumption such as Peter calls Simon, or the Town Tattle. The hidden polemics, which in the words of Bakhtin, concerns the clash over the referent is also seen in the privilege that Fitzgerald gives to performance of identity as far as masculinity and femininity are concerned on the one hand, and that of the ethnic Other, on the other. In tune with his times, Fitzgerald borrows from romantic Orientalism the notion of “theatrical staging” of the Self and the Other that the Orient films of the time, such as The Sheikh, made very conventional.
Racial love and racial Hate in postwarAmerican literature: From lorraine hansberry to Roi Jones
(Universite Mouloud Mammeri, 2018) Ait Benaili, Ounissa
This research has explored the theme of racial love and hatred with specific reference to three major Black American authors (Hansberry, Baldwin and Jones/Baraka) of the Black American Renaissance of the 1950s and the 1960s. It sets out with the assumption that these authors are deeply impacted by the Western Renaissance of the 1500s and 1600s in their deployment of the Socratic/Platonic dialogue and Ovidian aesthetics in their treatment of love and hatred across the racial board and in the context of the racial tensions of the period. Taking our bearings from historicist, dialogic, and psychopoetic theory developed by such literary theorists as Bloom and Bakhtin, this research has arrived at five major findings. One, the three authors of the Black American Renaissance deploy Platonism and Ovidianism in the same manner as their white counterparts of the Western Renaissance. Two, these authors’ family romances is a double family romance since they hold relations with both white and Black authors. Three, notwithstanding to black aesthetics, their works show a highly linguistic, cultural and aesthetic hybridity borrowing as much from the Black tradition as from the white tradition. Four, their stand towards the white tradition of love literature is sometimes that of stylization as is the case with Baldwin and Hansberry and at other times of overt polemics and parody as is the case of Jones/Baraka. With respect to the relation that the three authors hold among themselves it is marked by a highly divisive “clash over the referents” of racial love and hatred making Baldwin and Hansberry as predominantly Platonic and Jones as predominantly Ovidian in their erotic visions of the black and white “races”. The fifth and last finding relates to the fact that in spite of claims to the contrary, even such militants for a distinct black aesthetics as Jones/Baraka, the Black American artists of the Black American Renaissance remain heavily indebted to the Western literary and philosophical tradition for the methodology and the literary and philosophical tools they deploy in their works. It is in this sense, that this research follows in the lead of Ralph Ellison’s claim that Black American literature is “double-voiced” and that its major authors have both white ancestors and black literary relatives.
The Implementation of Project Work Methodology in the Algerian EFL Education: towards the Integration of Language, Content and Thinking Skills Based on Linguistic and Cognitive Complexities and Learners’ Proficiency Level
(UNIVERSITE MOULOUD MAMMERI DE TIZI-OUZOU, 2018-06) Fedoul, Malika
La pédagogie de projet est devenue récemment l'une des méthodologies d'enseignement les plus utilisées dans l’enseignement de l’anglais comme langue étrangère. Cette recherche est une étude sur l'intégration de la langue, des contenus et des compétences de réflexion dans le projet didactique des manuels algériens d’anglais destinés à l’enseignement du cycle moyen et secondaire. Il s'agit notamment d’une évaluation des projets didactiques proposés dans les manuels scolaires d’enseignement moyen Spotlight on English One (2003), Spotlight on English Two (2004), Spotlight on english three (2006) et On the Move (2006), et ceux de l’enseignement secondaire At the Crossroads (2005), Getting Through (2006) et New Prospects (2007). Cette recherche vise à déterminer les types de la langue, des contenus et des compétences de réflexion enseignés à travers les projets et si leur intégration tient compte du principe de progression graduelle en termes de complexités linguistique et cognitive. Elle cherche à découvrir si ces projets ciblent le type pratique de la langue et de contenu et les facultés cognitives dites de bas niveau (Lower order thinking skills) qui caractérisent l'utilisation du langage pour le type communication, dites aptitudes interpersonnelles de base (savoir pratique), ou ils visent le type abstrait de la langue et de contenu et les facultés cognitives dites de haut (Higher order thinking skills) nécessaire pour la maîtrise cognitive de la langue au niveau abstrait (savoir théorique). L’analyse des projets s’appuie sur le cadre des structures de savoir proposé par Mohan (1986) et le modèle de classification des activités de communication proposé par Cummins (1981). Ces derniers sont utilisés pour élaborer les catégories pour l'analyse du corpus qui comprend 44 projets analysés dans les manuels d’anglais. Ils sont également utilisés dans l’élaboration des questionnaires adressés aux apprenants de la quatrième année moyenne et de troisième année secondaire pour évaluer leurs attitudes et opinions concernant la problématique de la progression graduelle en termes de complexités linguistique et cognitive dans l’intégration de la langue, des contenus et des compétences de réflexion dans le projet didactique des manuels d’anglais. Il s’agit aussi de savoir si les difficultés des apprenants à conduire des projets en anglais sont dues aux complexités cognitives et linguistiques des projets suggérés dans ces manuels. Les résultats de l'analyse montrent que ces projets dans l’enseignement moyen et secondaire visent à enseigner les deux types de compétence de communication, dites aptitudes interpersonnelles de base (savoir pratique) et maîtrise cognitive de la langue au niveau abstrait (savoir théorique). Les projets visent également à développer chez l’apprenant deux types de facultés cognitives dites de haut et de bas niveaux. Il a été aussi constaté que l'intégration de ces deux types de compétences linguistiques et cognitives dans les projets est simultanée et ne prend pas en considération le principe de progression graduelle en termes de complexité linguistique et cognitive. Ce dernier est, en fait, à l’origine des difficultés que les apprenants rencontrent pour conduire les projets. La discussion de ces résultats à la lumière des recherches sur l'acquisition de la langue seconde, de la psychologie de l'éducation et de la psychologie relative au développement du langage chez l’enfant montre clairement que, chez les débutants, l'enseignement de la langue, des contenus et des compétences de réflexion devrait se faire de manière progressive, du simple au plus complexe en termes linguistique et cognitif. En se basant sur ces résultats, un cadre pour l’intégration graduelle de la langue, des contenus et des compétences de réflexion dans le projet didactique a été proposé.
Reading James Joyce through the eyes of Algerian francophone writers
(Universite Mouloud MAMMERI Tizi-Ouzou, 2018-11) Ferhi, Samir
The present research work is meant to make a comparative study between James Joyce's Dubliners, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Ulysses (1922), and the Algerian literary works written in French, namely Mohammed Dib's Trilogy Algeria , Yacine Kateb's Nedjma (1958) and Rachid Boudjedra's La Repudiation (1969). Using and reading the selected literary works by James Joyce through Algerian eyes, this comparative study reveals that despite the differences of culture, beliefs and languages separating Joyce from his Algerian counterparts, their works are quite similar. To reach the objectives of the study, we have borrowed some analytical and literary concepts from postcolonial theories and critical studies such as those put forward by Frantz Fanon, Homi Bhabha, T. S, Eliot, Robert Young and Mikhail Bakhtin. The main focus of the research is on the authors' similar viewpoints on issues related to the pathology of paralysis, colonialism, cosmopolitanism, hybridity, fanatic religion and the carnivalesque. Accordingly, the research is divided into six chapters. The first chapter provides us with the life and times of the selected authors with a historical and literary background of both colonial Ireland and colonial Algeria, by focusing on the most important events which deeply marked the history of both countries. The second chapter is devoted to a comparison between Joyce's collection of short stories in Dubliners and Dib's trilogy Algeria with a particular emphasis on the pathology of paralysis, while the third chapter provides a study of the critical cultural resistance which followed as a means of countering it. The fourth chapter concerns a comparative reading of Kateb's Nedjma and Joyce's Ulysses in an attempt to shed light on the themes of nationalism, and cosmopolitanism. The fifth chapter deals with the cultural and linguistic hybridity in Joyce's and Kateb's novels. Chapter six focuses on the study of family romance in Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, and Boudjedra's La Répudiation. The theme of family romance is looked at from a Freudian psychoanalysis and a Bakhtinian carnivalesque.
Myth and ritual in tennessee Williams' plays
(Universite Mouloud MAMMERI, 2019) Larabi, Sabéha
Cette thèse de doctorat intitulée 'Mythes et rites dans l'œuvre de Tennessee Williams' étudie la récurrence du mythe de la naissance et de la résurrection connue sous le nom du mythe de Dionysos dans la mythologie grecque dans le théâtre du dramaturge Américain Tennessee Williams de l'après deuxième guerre mondiale, notamment des années quarante, cinquante et soixante. L'approche mythocritique de l'œuvre de Williams met en évidence un grand mythe de référence, dans lequelberce l'imaginaire Williamsien, dans un agencement qui reflète l'histoire de la psyché occidentale et la stratification de l'inconscient collectif dont il estissus. Le mythe de Dionysos, immortalisé par Les Bacchantes, est le substrat du corpus williamsien, la tragédie d'Euripide apparaissant comme le paradigme dramatique de plusieurs pièces majeures. Les comédies de Williams révèlent également une homologie avec l'autre versant du mythe, celui du dieu phallique et de l’homosexualité. Le déclin du mythe de Dionysos est lié à l'émergence rivale du mythe d'Orphée, qui hanta toute sa vie le poète dramaturge à l'inspiration élégiaque. La résurgence des mythèmes de la descente aux enfers, du regard en arrière et du sparagmos final témoignent d'une identification profonde au mythe grec, dont le sacrifice est assimilé à l'oblation du Christ, par un rapprochement sacrilège caractéristique du gnosticisme Williamsien. L'archétype Dionysien apparaît finalement, à la lumière de la psychologie Jungienne, comme la représentation incomplète de la totalité psychique symbolisée l'androgyne, dont la nostalgie sous-tend toute l'œuvre williamsien. Le mythe grec constitue un outil pratique de représentation des diversesfacettes de la vie humaine grâce à sa plasticité et à sa polysémie. Ces derniers éléments, ainsi que son caractère archétypal ont permis la création d’un grand nombre de récits, quiont inspiré la création de plusieurs thèmes littéraires et de motifs iconographiques. Leursurvivance même après la fin de l’Antiquité, au cours du Moyen Age, de la Renaissance,et jusqu’à l’époque actuelle, prouve l’adaptabilité de ces traditions mythiques aux besoinsde sociétés et d’époques variées.
he Representations of Algerian Women in Mid-Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Travel Books By British and American Male and Female Authors
(Universite Mouloud MAMMERI Tizi-Ouzou, 2019) Seddiki, Sadia
This thesis critiques the images of Algerian women in a number of Western travel writings published between the mid-nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. It argues that these writings are characterized by a discourse that circulated an image of the Algerian woman which varies between the portrayal of the Moorish woman as a downtrodden victim who was imprisoned, secluded, shrouded, and treated as a beast of burden and the wanton Ouled Naïl woman. The Kabyle woman was an interesting case for the travellers because she, at least on the surface, did not fit any of the readymade moulds crafted by Orientalists for Muslim women whose depiction in the nineteenth century took two forms which oscillated between a voiceless victim and an Odalisque. Through an in-depth critical analysis of these writings and taking my theoretical bearings from postcolonial theories, critical theories and feminist literary criticism, I have reached a number of findings. This work illustrates how these travellers’ narratives invest in the tropes of colonial discourse often deployed to describe the “Other”, and how their inception and reception was conditioned by the imperial ideologies of the nineteenth-century which directed and limited these travellers’ observations in relation to the Orient. The research delineates how Barbara Bodichon’s heroification of Madame Luce of Algiers was her way of inscribing European women in imperial history and that this discursive intervention ignores the indigenous women (and their nation) and relegates them to the margins of her narrative and history. The work further describes how the colony and its women function as a stage for the travellers and their self-representation. Moorish and Kabyle women represent a space allowing these travellers construct, perform and project a capable and knowledgeable traveller identity while endeavouring to adhere to Victorian gender expectations. Despite being an object of Western fascination with the Ouled Naïl dancer these narratives agree that she was outside the European definition of an honest woman and was at the receiving end of an intrusive and often uninvited colonial gaze that objectified and eroticized her. Deconstructing the Western travellers’ gaze and demonstrating how it functions in the context of the lives of the Ouled Naïl dancers, this thesis reveals how this gaze is implicated in the continued oppression of these women.
Importance of feedback in formative assessment in the english language classroom at the university level (Algeria) : the case of first-year students' writing at the university of M'ohamed Bouguerra Boumerdes
(Universite Mouloud MAMMERI Tizi-Ouzou, 2019-01-19) Meftah, Yazid
The present study examines the effectiveness of an alternative feedback (rubric) use in improving the first year students writing performance in the department of foreign languages at Boumerdes University. The study hypothesises that the students’ incapacity to exploit their teachers’ comment, to enhance their writing productions, is mainly due to the current inappropriate type of feedback used by their teachers. This issue is investigated through a pre-experimental two phase study. The first phase consists in exploring the obstacles faced by both teachers and students when delivering and using the current traditional feedback. This phase uses two questionnaires destined to nineteen teachers and ninety one students. However, the core of the present research aims at comparing the writing performance of sixty five first year students under two different feedback conditions. To achieve these research goals, the pre-treatment stage consists of using a traditional feedback such as circling, highlighting errors and putting comments on the bottom of the students’ papers. During this phase, the criteria of a good production are kept hidden i.e. not shared with the learners. The post-treatment phase, in turn, consists in introducing a rubric of fifteen criteria against which students’ performance is assessed. During this phase, the criteria of a good production are publically shared with the participants. The 65 students’ performances are, then, analysed under the two conditions and the comparison of the students’ progression is established. The results of the present study reveal a moderate but steady improvement of the students writing production when alternative feedback is adopted. This positive impact affects writing accuracy more than the other aspects of the writing performances such as content. Moreover, the exploratory phase of the study reveals a set of factors which prevent both teachers and students from delivering and using feedback appropriately such as large classes, time management, and the teachers’ need of professional training in the field of assessment. The students’ lack of autonomy, also, exercises a heavy workload on their students’ performances.

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